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- I. Introduction
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- A. The History of Carbon
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- II. Occurrences in Nature
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- A. Diamond
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- B. Graphite
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- C. Coal and Charcoal
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- D. Amorphous Carbon
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- III. Carbon Compounds
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- A. Inorganic
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- B. Organic
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- IV. The Carbon Cycle
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- IV. Conclusion
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- Carbon, an element discovered before history itself, is one of the
- most abundant elements in the universe. It can be found in the sun, the
- stars, comets, and the atmospheres of most planets. There are close to ten
- million known carbon compounds, many thousands of which are vital to the
- basis of life itself (WWW 1).
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- Carbon occurs in many forms in nature. One of its purest forms is
- diamond. Diamond is the hardest substance known on earth. Although
- diamonds found in nature are colorless and transparent, when combined with
- other elements its color can range from pastels to black. Diamond is a
- poor conductor of heat and electricity. Until 1955 the only sources of
- diamond were found in deposits of volcanic origin. Since then scientists
- have found ways to make diamond from graphite and other synthetic
- materials. Diamonds of true gem quality are not made in this way (Beggott
- 3-4).
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- Graphite is another form of carbon. It occurs as a mineral in
- nature, but it can be made artificially from amorphous carbon. One of the
- main uses for graphite is for its lubricating qualities. Another is for
- the "lead" in pencils. Graphite is used as a heat resistant material and
- an electricity conductor. It is also used in nuclear reactors as a
- lubricator (Kinoshita 119-127).
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- Amorphous carbon is a deep black powder that occurs in nature as a
- component of coal. It may be obtained artificially from almost any organic
- substance by heating the substance to very high temperatures without air.
- Using this method, coke is produced from coal, and charcoal is produced
- from wood. Amorphous carbon is the most reactive form of carbon. Because
- amorphous carbon burns easily in air, it is used as a combustion fuel. The
- most important uses for amorphous carbon are as a filler for rubber and as
- a black pigment in paint (WWW 2).
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- There are two kinds of carbon compounds. The first is inorganic.
- Inorganic compounds are binary compounds of carbon with metals or metal
- carbides. They have properties ranging from reactive and saltlike; found
- in metals such as sodium, magnesium, and aluminum, to an unreactive and
- metallic, such as titanium and niobium (Beggott 4).
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- Carbon compounds containing nonmetals are usually gases or liquids
- with low boiling points. Carbon monoxide, a gas, is odorless, colorless,
- and tasteless. It forms during the incomplete combustion of carbon
- (Kinoshita 215-223). It is highly toxic to animals because it inhibits the
- transport of oxygen in the blood by hemoglobin (WWW 2). Carbon dioxide is
- a colorless, almost odorless gas that is formed by the combustion of
- carbon. It is a product that results from respiration in most living
- organisms and is used by plants as a source of carbon. Frozen carbon
- dioxide, known as dry ice, is used as a refrigerant. Fluorocarbons, such
- as Freon, are used as refrigerants (Kinoshita 225-226).
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- Organic compounds are those compounds that occur in nature. The
- simplest organic compounds consist of only carbon and hydrogen, the
- hydrocarbons. The state of matter for organic compounds depends on how
- many carbons are contained in it. If a compound has up to four carbons it
- is a gas, if it has up to 20 carbons it is a liquid, and if it has more
- than 20 carbons it is a solid (Kinoshita 230-237).
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- The carbon cycle is the system of biological and chemical processes
- that make carbon available to living things for use in tissue building and
- energy release (Kinoshita 242). All living cells are composed of proteins
- consisting of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen in various
- combinations, and each living organism puts these elements together
- according to its own genetic code. To do this the organism must have these
- available in special compounds built around carbon. These special
- compounds are produced only by plants, by the process of photosynthesis.
- Photosynthesis is a process in which chlorophyll traps and uses energy from
- the sun in the form of light. Six molecules of carbon dioxide combine with
- six molecules of water to form one molecule of glucose (sugar). The
- glucose molecule consists of six atoms of carbon, twelve of hydrogen, and
- six of oxygen. Six oxygen molecules, consisting of two oxygen atoms each,
- are also produced and are discharged into the atmosphere unless the plant
- needs energy to live. In that case, the oxygen combines with the glucose
- immediately, releasing six molecules of carbon dioxide and six of water for
- each molecule of glucose (Beggott 25-32). The carbon cycle is then
- completed as the plant obtains the energy that was stored by the glucose.
- The length of time required to complete the cycle varies. In plants
- without an immediate need for energy, the chemical processes continue in a
- variety of ways. By reducing the hydrogen and oxygen content of most of
- the sugar molecules by one water molecule and combining them to form large
- molecules, plants produce substances such as starch, inulin , and fats
- and store them for future use. Regardless of whether the stored food is
- used later by the plant or consumed by some other organism, the molecules
- will ultimately be digested and oxidized, and carbon dioxide and water will
- be discharged. Other molecules of sugar undergo a series of chemical
- changes and are finally combined with nitrogen compounds to form protein
- substances, which are then used to build tissues (WWW 2).
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- Although protein substances may pass from organism to organism,
- eventually these too are oxidized and form carbon dioxide and water as
- cells wear out and are broken down, or as the organisms die. In either
- case, a new set of organisms, ranging from fungi to the large scavengers,
- use the waste products or tissues for food, digesting and oxidizing the
- substances for energy release (WWW 1).
- At various times in the Earth's history, some plant and animal
- tissues have been protected by erosion and sedimentation from the natural
- agents of decomposition and converted into substances such as peat,
- lignite, petroleum, and coal. The carbon cycle, temporarily interrupted in
- this manner, is completed as fuels are burned, and carbon dioxide and water
- are again added to the atmosphere for reuse by living things, and the solar
- energy stored by photosynthesis ages ago is released (Kinoshita 273-275).
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- Almost everything around us today has some connection with carbon
- or a carbon compound. Carbon is in every living organism. Without carbon
- life would not exist as we know it.
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- Works Cited
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- 1. Beggott, Jim Great Balls of Carbon New Scientist, July 6, 1991
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- 2. Kinoshita, Kim Carbon Compounds Random, New York 119-275
- 1987
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- 3. WWW Carbon http://www.usc.edu/chem/carbon.html 1995
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- 4. WWW Carbon Compounds
- http://www.harvard.edu/depts/chem/carbon.html
- 1995
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